Anth 197 MS:  Introduction to Biomarkers, Behavior, and Lab Techniques for the Social Sciences
​UCSB Winter 2022

Mondays 3 - 5:50 pm, BioEngineering, Bldg 512
  ------ Zoom link for hybrid meeting: https://bit.ly/3JuG2Zl
  ------ Zoom link for office hours Weds 2 - 3 pm https://bit.ly/3tL9Z1K
Discussion: rm 1209
Labwork: rm 0202
Instructor: Prof. Nicole Thompson González, natg @ ucsb.edu

Welcome!
  Biomarkers are increasingly used in the social sciences because they are windows into physiological processes. They give us clues about individual condition and the impact of social and physical environments on health and Darwinian fitness. Biomarkers also play a strong role in our behavior, as behavior is an emergent aspect of our phenotype. This course spans a broad range of theory and methods involved in using biomarkers in the social sciences.  Theory comes from areas of behavioral research that center on or make use of biomarker data, e.g. behavioral endocrinology, behavioral ecology, evolutionary medicine, and public health. Methods focus on but are not limited to non-invasive sampling (saliva, urine, feces), quality concerns for their timing, storage, and processing, and the principles of immunoassays used to measure biomarker concentrations.

By the end of this course, you will be able to 
  • differentiate several physiological processes important for health and fitness
  • describe these processes as pathways by which the environment impacts health and fitness
  • identify biomarkers that are representative of these processes
  • design a study to evaluate the role of a given pathway and biomarker(s) in linking physiology, behavior, and health​

In this class, ​respect for one another is our highest priority. We will actively listen to one another's interests, thoughts, and perspectives and maintain respectful curiosity for perspectives that we do not understand. These perspectives include, but are not limited to religion, sexual orientation, gender identity,  and racial identity. Disagreement and debate is good, do not shy away from it. Try though to use "I" statements during disagreements and make reference to your understanding of specific readings and your personal experience. Avoid making over-generalized statements, e.g. "everyone knows" or "it is a fact that". We will also prioritize impact over intention, i.e. if someone perceives harm in either an act or statement and wishes to address it, then the speaker/actor will acknowledge harm done and apologize. Please write or speak to me in private if you would like help to address or moderate any issue.
Jan 3 : Introductions
Time to introduce the themes of the course, the lab, and ourselves to one another.
Readings for day of class: Discussion in class: Lab work: N/A
Due: Brainstorm topics of interest for research proposal.

Jan 10: Social determinants of health & Non-invasive markers
Today's class presents two important perspectives with which you'll want to approach the rest of the quarter and your research proposal. Those two perspectives are 1) what aspects of physiology are important to measure and how do we measure them non-invasively (Behringer & Deschner) and 2) how do our environments relate to our physiology, health, and biological fitness. The latter topic covers a lot of ground. It includes a comparative lens on health, which examines the relationship of the social environment, health, and fitness across animals. It also includes the idea of "embodiment" (Gravlee),  which emphasizes that our physiology develops in dynamic interaction with our environment . Approach the readings in whatever order you choose.

Readings for day of class: Discussion in class:
  • NTG Lecture on key physiological functions to be measured, logistical considerations of different sampling media and regimes
  • Sociality and health in humans and other animals
  • Embodiment theory
Lab work:  Lab tour, radiation safety primer, pipetting instruction, and dilutions exercise.
Due: 3 candidate topics for research proposal (1 paragraph each, 2 pages max), negative COVID test, and Lab Safety Fundamental certificate.

Jan 17: (MLK Jr. Day no class) Principles of immunoassays
Required viewing: Video lecture on principles of immunoassays.
This video does a good job at explaining and visualizing the principles of immunoassays, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) in particular.
There are several different strategies that researchers (and manufacturers) use to design ELISAs. The narrator goes over the 4 common strategies:
  • Direct
  • Indirect
  • Sandwich
  • Competitive
To understand how these different strategies are used in the ELISA we will perform in class, see this required reading.
Note: The narrator refers to the analyte (or antigen) of interest consistently as a "protein"... we are not always looking for proteins with immunoassays. Sometimes, yes, we want to detect a protein or peptide (e.g. insulin, oxytocin, immunoglobulins, thyroid hormones), other times we want to detect a  steroid (e.g. cortisol, estradiol, testosterone). Here is optional information that highlights the different structures of different hormones. Immunoassays work the same way to detect any analyte - specific antibodies are developed for the analyte/antigen and are used to capture and detect it. Of course, there are lots of other methods to detect other things... flow cytometry and differential centrifugation for cell types, liquid chromotography  - mass spectrometry (LC-MS) for almost any type of molecule, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in part to detect particular regions of genetic code. With the exception of differential centrifugation, we will not be covering them in this class.
 Readings: Due Weds 1/19: Annotated bibliography for research proposal (7 refs minimum, 2 max from from previous readings).
​
Jan 24: Energetics, life history, and reproduction
Today is the first class that we get into one of our major physiological domains - energy allocation. This topic is central and foundational to an evolutionary perspective of human biology and behavior, including life history theory. We tie in female menstrual cycles, reproduction, and the logistics of their measurements, because it is so closely tied to energetic status and is a major area of energetic investment.
Readings for day of class: Discussion in class: Lab work: Aliquoting, Urinary pH, & SG exercise.​
Due: Outline of background for research proposal. 2 urine samples, after waking and before sleep.​
​
Jan 31: The stress response and glucocorticoids
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis plays a powerful and fundamental role in regulating homeostasis and governs a large part of our physiological stress response.  The end products of HPA activity are glucocorticoids, which mobilize energy and have a multitude of effects across different physiological systems. These effects vary by the intensity and duration of glucocorticoid exposure. Short-term exposure is typically adaptive. However, long-term exposure can lead to deleterious consequences for digestion, reproduction, cognition, and immunity.

Readings for day of class: Discussion in class:
  • Homeostasis, HPA axis, and the logic of the stress response (pp. 409-418)
  • System-specific stress effects and related disease - good girl gone bad (pp. 418 - 425, 435
  • Psychosocial stress (pp. 436 - 448)
  • What to expect for next week.
Lab work:  Practice with multichannel pipetter. 
Due:  NA.

Feb 7: Cortisol immunoassay
​Readings for day of class: Cortisol ELISA protocol.
Discussion in class: 
  • ELISA equipment
  • The standard curve
  • Sharing research questions with the class
Lab work: Cortisol ELISA
Due: Outline of methods for research proposal.

Feb 14: Inflammation and immunity
​Readings for day of class: Discussion in class:
Lab work: Blood differentials with QBC star
Due: N/A

Feb 21: (Presidents' Day no class) focus on proposal writing
Discussion for week: Scheduled 1-on-1 meeting times for support on proposal writing.
Due Weds Feb 23: Cortisol lab report

Feb 28: Emergent social behavior
Readings for day of class: Discussion in class: TBD
Lab work:  TBD
Due: QBC lab report

March 7: Student presentations

Full research proposals due Friday March 11th, emailed to natg@ucsb.edu by 5 pm PST. 

Grading:
​Discussion leading and participation (30 pt) 
  • Lead 1 discussion follow the prompts and facilitating discussion (9 points)
  • Participate in all 7 other discussions (3 points each)  
  • Discussion leader schedule
Lab reports (10 pt x 2)
Research proposal (50 pt) 
  • 3 ideas for research proposal (5 pt)
  • Research question and annotated bibliography for proposal (5 pt)
  • Outline of background section, hypothesis, and predictions (5 pt)
  • Outline of methods for proposal (5 pt)
  • Oral presentation (13 pt)
  • Written proposal (17 pt)
Please turn in assignments as a word doc attachment to my email address (natg @ ucsb.edu) with ANTH 197 in the subject line and your last name at the start of the doc title. All assignments leading up to the written proposal are due by midnight PT on the due date.

Extra credit précis (3 pt each)
​
Possible references for projects:
Resources here
Nelson Chapter 1 What is behavioral endocrinology
Nelson Chapter 2 The endocrine system
1.     Aiken, C. E., Tarry-Adkins, J. L., & Ozanne, S. E. (2016). Transgenerational effects of maternal diet on metabolic and reproductive ageing. Mammalian Genome, 27(7), 430–439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00335-016-9631-1
2.     Alberts, S. C., Archie, E. A., Gesquiere, L. R., Altmann, J., Vaupel, J. W., & Christensen, K. (2014). The Male-Female Health-Survival Paradox: A Comparative Perspective on Sex Differences in Aging and Mortality. In Sociality, Hierarchy, Health: Comparative Biodemography: A Collection of Papers. National Academies Press (US). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK242444/
3.     Alvergne, A., Jokela, M., & Lummaa, V. (2010). Personality and reproductive success in a high-fertility human population. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(26), 11745–11750. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1001752107
4.     Bartolomucci, A. (2007). Social stress, immune functions and disease in rodents. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 28(1), 28–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2007.02.001
5.     Bektas, A., Schurman, S. H., Sen, R., & Ferrucci, L. (2017). Human T cell immunosenescence and inflammation in aging. Journal of Leukocyte Biology, 102(4), 977–988. https://doi.org/10.1189/jlb.3RI0716-335R
6.     Bonier, F., Martin, P. R., Moore, I. T., & Wingfield, J. C. (2009). Do baseline glucocorticoids predict fitness? Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 24(11), 634–642. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.04.013
7.     Cain, D. W., & Cidlowski, J. A. (2017). Immune regulation by glucocorticoids. Nature Reviews Immunology, 17(4), 233–247. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri.2017.1
8.     Cohen, S., Janicki-Deverts, D., Doyle, W. J., Miller, G. E., Frank, E., Rabin, B. S., & Turner, R. B. (2012). Chronic stress, glucocorticoid receptor resistance, inflammation, and disease risk. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(16), 5995–5999. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1118355109
9.     Currie, C. L., Copeland, J. L., & Metz, G. A. (2019). Childhood racial discrimination and adult allostatic load: The role of Indigenous cultural continuity in allostatic resiliency. Social Science & Medicine, 241, 112564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112564
10.  Danese, A., Caspi, A., Williams, B., Ambler, A., Sugden, K., Mika, J., Werts, H., Freeman, J., Pariante, C. M., Moffitt, T. E., & Arseneault, L. (2011). Biological embedding of stress through inflammation processes in childhood. Molecular Psychiatry, 16(3), 244–246. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2010.5
11.  Danese, A., Pariante, C. M., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., & Poulton, R. (2007). Childhood maltreatment predicts adult inflammation in a life-course study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(4), 1319. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0610362104
12.  Del Giudice, M. (2012). Fetal programming by maternal stress: Insights from a conflict perspective. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.05.014
13.  Del Giudice, M. (2014). Early stress and human behavioral development: Emerging evolutionary perspectives. J Dev Orig Health Dis, 5. https://doi.org/10.1017/s2040174414000257
14.  Del Giudice, M., Ellis, B. J., & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2011). The Adaptive Calibration Model of stress responsivity. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(7), 1562–1592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.11.007
15.  Dowd, J. B., & Zajacova, A. (2010). Does Self-Rated Health Mean the Same Thing Across Socioeconomic Groups? Evidence From Biomarker Data. Annals of Epidemiology, 20(10), 743–749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2010.06.007
16.  Eisenberger, N. I., & Cole, S. W. (2012). Social neuroscience and health: Neurophysiological mechanisms linking social ties with physical health. Nature Neuroscience, 15(5), 669–674.
17.  Eisenberger, N. I., Moieni, M., Inagaki, T. K., Muscatell, K. A., & Irwin, M. R. (2017). In Sickness and in Health: The Co-Regulation of Inflammation and Social Behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology, 42(1), 242–253. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2016.141
18.  Elder, T. E., Goddeeris, J. H., Haider, S. J., & Paneth, N. (2014). The Changing Character of the Black–White Infant Mortality Gap, 1983–2004. American Journal of Public Health, 104(S1), S105–S111. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301349
19.  Emery Thompson, M. (2016). C-peptide of insulin. In The International Encyclopedia of Primatology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
20.  Fryers, T. (2006). Work, identity and health. Clinical Practice and Epidemiology in Mental Health : CP & EMH, 2, 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1745-0179-2-12
21.  Gangestad, S. W., & Grebe, N. M. (2017). Hormonal systems, human social bonding, and affiliation. Hormones and Behavior, 91, 122–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.08.005
22.  Gangestad, S. W., Haselton, M. G., Welling, L. L. M., Gildersleeve, K., Pillsworth, E. G., Burriss, R. P., Larson, C. M., & Puts, D. A. (2016). How valid are assessments of conception probability in ovulatory cycle research? Evaluations, recommendations, and theoretical implications. Evolution and Human Behavior, 37(2), 85–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2015.09.001
23.  García, A. R., Gurven, M., & Blackwell, A. D. (2017). A matter of perception: Perceived socio-economic status and cortisol on the island of Utila, Honduras. American Journal of Human Biology, 29(5), e23031. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.23031
24.  Geronimus, A. T., Hicken, M. T., Pearson, J. A., Seashols, S. J., Brown, K. L., & Cruz, T. D. (2010). Do US Black Women Experience Stress-Related Accelerated Biological Aging? Human Nature, 21(1), 19–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-010-9078-0
25.  Gesquiere, L. R., Learn, N. H., Simao, M. C. M., Onyango, P. O., Alberts, S. C., & Altmann, J. (2011). Life at the Top: Rank and Stress in Wild Male Baboons. Science, 333(6040), 357–360. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1207120
26.  Glynn, L. M., Christenfeld, N., & Gerin, W. (1999). Gender, Social Support, and Cardiovascular Responses to Stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 61(2), 234–242.
27.  Goldman-Mellor, S., Hamer, M., & Steptoe, A. (2012). Early-life stress and recurrent psychological distress over the lifecourse predict divergent cortisol reactivity patterns in adulthood. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(11), 1755–1768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.03.010
28.  Gurven, M., Jaeggi, A. V., Kaplan, H., & Cummings, D. (2013). Physical activity and modernization among bolivian amerindians. PLOS ONE, 8(1), e55679. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055679
29.  Hawkley, L. C., & Capitanio, J. P. (2015). Perceived social isolation, evolutionary fitness and health outcomes: A lifespan approach. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 370(1669).
30.  Heron, M. (2019). National Vital Statistics Reports. National Vital Statistics System, 68(6), 1–75.
31.  Hicken, M. T., Lee, H., Morenoff, J., House, J. S., & Williams, D. R. (2014). Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Hypertension Prevalence: Reconsidering the Role of Chronic Stress. American Journal of Public Health, 104(1), 117–123. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301395
32.  Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T., & Stephenson, D. (2015). Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 227–237. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614568352
33.  Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., & Layton, J. B. (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk: A meta-analytic review. PLOS Medicine, 7(7), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316
34.  Jaeggi, A. V., Blackwell, A. D., von Rueden, C., Trumble, B. C., Stieglitz, J., Garcia, A. R., Kraft, T. S., Beheim, B. A., Hooper, P. L., Kaplan, H., & Gurven, M. (2021). Do wealth and inequality associate with health in a small-scale subsistence society? ELife, 10, e59437. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.59437
35.  Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (1999). Stress, Personal Relationships, and Immune Function: Health Implications. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 13(1), 61–72. https://doi.org/10.1006/brbi.1999.0552
36.  Kikusui, T., Winslow, J. T., & Mori, Y. (2006). Social buffering: Relief from stress and anxiety. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 361(1476), 2215.
37.  Kirschbaum, C., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1989). Salivary cortisol in psychobiological research: An overview. Neuropsychobiology, 22. https://doi.org/10.1159/000118611
38.  Knight, E. L., Sarkar, A., Prasad, S., & Mehta, P. H. (2020). Beyond the challenge hypothesis: The emergence of the dual-hormone hypothesis and recommendations for future research. Hormones and Behavior, 123, 104657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.104657
39.  Kunz-Ebrecht, S. R., Mohamed-Ali, V., Feldman, P. J., Kirschbaum, C., & Steptoe, A. (2003). Cortisol responses to mild psychological stress are inversely associated with proinflammatory cytokines. Brain Behav Immun, 17. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0889-1591(03)00029-1
40.  Libby, P. (2007). Inflammatory Mechanisms: The Molecular Basis of Inflammation and Disease. Nutrition Reviews, 65(suppl_3), S140–S146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2007.tb00352.x
41.  Markham, A. C., & Gesquiere, L. R. (2017). Costs and benefits of group living in primates: An energetic perspective. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 372(1727).
42.  Marsland, A. L., Walsh, C., Lockwood, K., & John-Henderson, N. A. (2017). The effects of acute psychological stress on circulating and stimulated inflammatory markers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 64, 208–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2017.01.011
43.  Martel, M. M., Klump, K., Nigg, J. T., Breedlove, S. M., & Sisk, C. L. (2009). Potential hormonal mechanisms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder: A new perspective. Hormones and Behavior, 55(4), 465–479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.02.004
44.  O’Donovan, A., Neylan, T. C., Metzler, T., & Cohen, B. E. (2012). Lifetime exposure to traumatic psychological stress is associated with elevated inflammation in the Heart and Soul Study. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 26(4), 642–649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2012.02.003
45.  Ong, A. D., Uchino, B. N., & Wethington, E. (2016). Loneliness and Health in Older Adults: A Mini-Review and Synthesis. Gerontology, 62(4), 443–449. https://doi.org/10.1159/000441651
46.  Romero, A. J., Edwards, L. M., Fryberg, S. A., & Orduña, M. (2014). Resilience to discrimination stress across ethnic identity stages of development. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 44(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12192
47.  Roney, J. R., & Simmons, Z. L. (2014). Elevated Psychological Stress Predicts Reduced Estradiol Concentrations in Young Women. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology, 1(1), 30–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40750-014-0004-2
48.  Saklayen, M. G. (2018). The Global Epidemic of the Metabolic Syndrome. Current Hypertension Reports, 20(2), 12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11906-018-0812-z
49.  Sapolsky, R. M. (2005). The influence of social hierarchy on primate health. Science, 308(648), 648–652. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1106477
50.  Sapolsky, R. M. (2012). Importance of a sense of control and the physiological benefits of leadership. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(44), 17730–17731. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1215502109
51.  Sapolsky, R. M. (2016). Proinflammatory primates. Science, 354(6315), 967.
52.  Schmeer, K. K., & Tarrence, J. (2018). Racial-ethnic Disparities in Inflammation: Evidence of Weathering in Childhood? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 59(3), 411–428. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146518784592
53.  Seeman, T., Epel, E., Gruenewald, T., Karlamangla, A., & McEwen, B. S. (2010). Socio-economic differentials in peripheral biology: Cumulative allostatic load. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186(1), 223–239. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05341.x
54.  Seeman, T., Merkin, S. S., Crimmins, E., Koretz, B., Charette, S., & Karlamangla, A. (2008). Education, income and ethnic differences in cumulative biological risk profiles in a national sample of US adults: NHANES III (1988–1994). Social Science & Medicine, 66(1), 72–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.08.027
55.  Shen, Z., Zheng, X., & Yang, H. (2020). The fertility effects of public pension: Evidence from the new rural pension scheme in China. PLOS ONE, 15(6), e0234657. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0234657
56.  Shirazi, T. N., & Rosinger, A. Y. (2021). Reproductive Health Disparities in the USA: Self-Reported Race/Ethnicity Predicts Age of Menarche and Live Birth Ratios, but Not Infertility. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 8(1), 33–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00752-4
57.  Skopec, R. (2011). Mechanism Linking Aggression Stress through Inflammation to Cancer. Journal of Cancer Science & Therapy, 3(6). https://doi.org/10.4172/1948-5956.1000075
58.  Sorrells, S. F., & Sapolsky, R. M. (2007). An Inflammatory Review of Glucocorticoid Actions in the CNS. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 21(3), 259–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2006.11.00
59.  Steptoe, A., Shankar, A., Demakakos, P., & Wardle, J. (2013). Social isolation, loneliness, and all-cause mortality in older men and women. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(15), 5797–5801. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1219686110
60.  Stiemsma, L., Reynolds, L., Turvey, S., & Finlay, B. (2015). The hygiene hypothesis: Current perspectives and future therapies. ImmunoTargets Ther, 4, 143–157. https://doi.org/10.2147/ITT.S61528
61.  Stojanovich, L., & Marisavljevich, D. (2008). Stress as a trigger of autoimmune disease. Autoimmunity Reviews, 7(3), 209–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autrev.2007.11.007
62.  Uchino, B. N., Cacioppo, J. T., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (1996). The relationship between social support and physiological processes: A review with emphasis on underlying mechanisms and implications for health. Psychological Bulletin, 119(3), 488.
63.  Umberson, D., & Karas Montez, J. (2010). Social Relationships and Health: A Flashpoint for Health Policy. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51(1_suppl), S54–S66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510383501
64.  Urlacher, S. S., Ellison, P. T., Sugiyama, L. S., Pontzer, H., Eick, G., Liebert, M. A., Cepon-Robins, T. J., Gildner, T. E., & Snodgrass, J. J. (2018). Tradeoffs between immune function and childhood growth among Amazonian forager-horticulturalists. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(17), E3914–E3921. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1717522115
65.  Wade, G. N., & Jones, J. E. (2004). Neuroendocrinology of nutritional infertility. American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 287(6), R1277–R1296. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00475.2004
66.  West, K. M., Blacksher, E., & Burke, W. (2017). Genomics, Health Disparities, and Missed Opportunities for the Nation’s Research Agenda. JAMA, 317(18), 1831–1832. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.3096
67.  Wingfield, J. C., & Sapolsky, R. M. (2003). Reproduction and resistance to stress: When and how. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 15(8), 711–724.
68.  Woo, H., & Zajacova, A. (2017). Predictive Strength of Self-Rated Health for Mortality Risk Among Older Adults in the United States: Does It Differ by Race and Ethnicity? Research on Aging, 39(7), 879–905. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027516637410
69.  Yang, Y. C., Gerken, K., Schorpp, K., Boen, C., & Harris, K. M. (2017). Early-Life Socioeconomic Status and Adult Physiological Functioning: A Life Course Examination of Biosocial Mechanisms. Biodemography and Social Biology, 63(2), 87–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/19485565.2017.1279536
70.  Yip, T. (2018). Ethnic/Racial Identity—A Double-Edged Sword? Associations With Discrimination and Psychological Outcomes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27(3), 170–175. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417739348